The 1-2-3s of Washing Your Face

Photo courtesy of Freevector

Your appearance can be affected by how you wash your face. Follow these dermatologist-recommended tips to keep your face looking healthy. 

1. Use a non-alcoholic cleanser that is gentle and non-abrasive. 
2. Wash your face with lukewarm water and apply cleanser with your fingertips. Using anything other than your fingertips, such as a washcloth or a mesh sponge, can irritate your skin. 
3. Resist the urge to scrub your skin because scrubbing irritates it. 
4. Rinse thoroughly with warm water and pat dry with a soft towel. 
5. If your skin is dry or itchy, use a moisturiser. When applying any cream around your eyes, be gentle so that you do not pull too hard on this delicate skin.
6. Wash only twice a day and after sweating. Wash your face twice a day, once in the morning and once at night, and after heavy sweating. Perspiration irritates the skin, especially when wearing a hat or helmet. After sweating, wash your skin as soon as possible.

GlomaxAesthetics permanent Hair removal

Fascinating methods using low frequency optical light source for facial hair removal and lightening the skin colour by all least 1 shade.

Glomax Aesthetics | Skin Care & Protection | Videos of 6 treatments ranging from facial cleansing to acne treatment

As promised in the past weeks, today we bring you a set of skin care videos by Glomax Aesthetics (of Singapore). If you interested; whether:

1. A skin researcher who wants  to know about efficacy data
2. Person/entrepreneur wants to purchase the products for your own business
3. Or simply, would like to have one of the treatments for yourself or a loved one

look for our contact details at the end of videos, or at the bottom of this page

1. Fascinating methods using low frequency optical light source for facial hair removal and lightening the skin colour by all least 1 shade

2. Facial skin magnetic fusion using skin solution-based serum

3. Oxygen the life formula now in O2jet form for facial treatment of damaged skin

4. Get an instant glow with Luminous Detox EnergieCare

5. Removing dead skin cells using water, with Hydrabrasion Plus Facial Treatment

6. Getting rid of acne with IntensiveAcneMedicPlus Treatment

Awards

Contact Info

12 Eu Tong Sen Street, #06-168, SOHO 2, Singapore 059819

Email: info@glomaxaesthetics.com | Website: www.glomaxaesthetics.com

 

 

Make an Appointment / Inquiry

✆ WhatsApp: +65 9459 0795

⌂ Online booking: https://www.glomaxaesthetics.com/onlinebooking/

✉ Email: info@glomaxaesthetics.com

Project Entrepreneur Continues to Empower Malaysian Entrepreneurs in Achieving their Business Goals! FREE Online training starting on 15th June 2021

My dear readers,  a good opportunity to venture into being your own boss! More details on their website, but be ready for 17 sessions of 2 hours each! 

Entrepreneurs and MSMEs are now more important than ever as they create jobs and support our economy. Against the backdrop of an unprecedented pandemic, we need to do even more to support them. 

Dedicated to transforming lives through education, Project Entrepreneur by BAC Education will help train 10,000 Malaysian entrepreneurs for FREE. These training programs aim to empower aspiring entrepreneurs and MSMEs to build and grow their businesses and navigate the challenges of the pandemic. The program comprises of 17 (2 hours) sessions and an additional MasterClass.

Classes start June 15th, 2021. Sign up at https://projectentrepreneur.asia/ today! 

11 WAYS TO SLOW DOWN THE AGEING OF THE SKIN

Photo courtesy of Apothekari.com

Our skin ages due to a variety of factors. Some things are beyond our control, while others are. 

The natural ageing process is one thing we cannot change. It is very important. We all get visible lines on our faces over time. It is natural for our faces to lose some of their youthful fullness as we age. Our skin is becoming thinner and drier. When these changes occur is largely determined by our genes. Intrinsic ageing is the medical term for this type of ageing.

We can influence another type of aging that affects our skin. Our environment and lifestyle choices can cause our skin to age prematurely. The medical term for this type of aging is “extrinsic aging.” By taking some preventive actions, we can slow the effects that this type of aging has on our skin.

HOW TO PREVENT PREMATURE SKIN AGING

It is natural for people to experience thinner, drier skin as they age, as well as an increase in wrinkles and other signs of ageing. Your environment and lifestyle choices, on the other hand, can sometimes cause your skin to age prematurely. Board-certified dermatologists recommend the following simple steps to prevent premature skin ageing. 

The sun contributes significantly to the premature ageing of our skin. Other things we do can also cause our skin to age faster than it would naturally. Dermatologists provide the following advice to their patients to help them prevent premature skin ageing.

1. Every day, protect your skin from the sun. Sun protection is essential whether you're spending the day at the beach or running errands. Seek shade, cover up with sun-protective clothing — such as a lightweight and long-sleeved shirt, pants, a wide-brimmed hat, and UV-protective sunglasses — and use sunscreen that is broad-spectrum, SPF 30 (or higher), and water-resistant. Every day, apply sunscreen to all exposed skin that is not covered by clothing. Look for clothing with an ultraviolet protection factor (UPF) label for better protection.
2. Rather than getting a tan, use self-tanner. You prematurely age your skin every time you tan. This is true whether you get your tan from the sun, a tanning bed, or another type of indoor tanning equipment. All of them emit harmful UV rays that hasten the ageing of your skin. 
3. Reduce your alcohol consumption. Alcohol is abrasive to the skin. It dehydrates the skin and, over time, damages it. We may appear older as a result of this. 
4. Avoid making the same facial expressions over and over again. When you make a facial expression, the underlying muscles contract. These lines become permanent if you repeatedly contract the same muscles over a long period of time. Squinting lines can be reduced by wearing sunglasses.
5. Consume a nutritious, well-balanced diet. According to the findings of a few studies, eating plenty of fresh fruits and vegetables may help prevent damage that leads to premature skin ageing. According to the findings of research studies, a diet high in sugar or other refined carbohydrates can hasten ageing. 
6. Stop smoking if you do. Smoking hastens the ageing process of the skin. It results in wrinkles and a dull, shallow complexion. 
7. Most days of the week, you should exercise. A few studies have found that moderate exercise can improve circulation and boost the immune system. This, in turn, may impart a more youthful appearance to the skin.
8. Every day, apply a facial moisturiser. Moisturizer holds water in our skin, making it appear younger. 
9. Wash your face twice a day and after heavy sweating. Perspiration irritates the skin, especially when wearing a hat or helmet, so you should wash your skin as soon as possible after sweating. 
10. Gently cleanse your skin. Scrubbing your skin clean can cause irritation. Irritating your skin hastens its ageing. Gentle washing removes pollution, makeup, and other substances from your skin without irritating it. 
11. Stop using stinging or burning skin care products. When your skin burns or stings, it indicates that it is irritated. Irritating your skin can cause it to appear older.

Note: Some anti-aging products prescribed by a dermatologist may burn or sting. When using a prescription anti-aging product, this can be OK. Just be sure to let your dermatologist know.


NEVER TOO LATE TO BENEFIT

Even those who already show signs of premature skin ageing can benefit from lifestyle changes. By shielding your skin from the sun, you allow it to repair some of the damage. When smokers quit, they often notice that their skin looks better. 

If the signs of ageing skin bother you, you should consult a dermatologist. Many people now have younger-looking skin thanks to new treatments and less-invasive procedures for smoothing wrinkles, tightening skin, and improving complexion.

6 most ignored causes of back pain

If you experiencing one or more of the symptoms listed here, visit a doctor

1. Persistent back pain
2. Extreme pain from the back or neck region
3. Sudden back pain
4. Pain that radiated down the legs
5. Tingling pain in arms or legs
6. Loss of bladder or bowel control (most serious requiring immediate attention)

SOURCE : Holy-Cross Health 

British Library EThOS: Development of a measurement instrument using capacitance sensors techniques to image and measure the skin surface hydration

British Library EThOS: Development of a measurement instrument using capacitance sensors techniques to image and measure the skin surface hydration

SKIN FACTS - KNOW YOUR SKIN! (and then,La we will learn how to care for our skin)

SKIN FUNCTION AND LAYERS 

• Skin is the largest organ of the body.
• It has an area of 2 square metres (22 square feet) in adults, and weighs about 5 kilograms. 
• The thickness of skin varies from 0.5mm thick on the eyelids to 4.0mm thick on the heels of your feet.
• Skin is the major barrier between the inside and outside of your body:
• The outermost layer of the skin that we can see, is actually dead skin.
• It is known as 'Stratified squamous keratinised epithelium'
• These cells are flat and filled with a protein called 'keratin', and this makes the skin waterproof!
• So, by being dead, the outermost skin cells becomes our barrier from the environment(toxins,  free radicals, germs, micro-organisms) and harm.

1. Skin Functions

i. Protection - it protects against:

• UV light
• mechanical, thermal and chemical stresses
• dehydration (water loss)
• and invasion by micro-organisms

ii. Sensation - skin has receptors that sense:

• touch
• pressure
• pain
• and temperature

iii. Thermoregulation - various features of the skin are involved in regulating temperature of the body. For example :

• sweat glands
• hair 
• and adipose tissue

iv. Metabolic functions- subcutaneous adipose tissue is involved in producing :

• vitamin D
• and triglycerides

2. Skin Layers 

The layers of skin are categorised into three:

i. Epidermis: 

• Is a thin outer portion, that is the keratinised stratified squamous epithelium of skin (as discussed above).
• The epidermis is important for the protective function of skin. 
• The basal layers of this epithelium are folded to form dermal papillae. 
• Thin skin contains four types of cellular layers, and thick skin contains five. 

ii. Dermis: 
Is a thicker inner portion. This is the connective tissue layer of skin. It is important for sensation, protection and thermoregulation. 

It contains nerves, the blood supply, fibroblasts, etc, as well as sweat glands, which open out onto the surface of the skin, and in some regions, hair. The apical (the top) layers of the dermis are folded, to form dermal papillae, which are particularly prominent in thick skin.

This diagram shows the layers found in skin.There are three main layers: the epidermis, dermis and hypodermis. There are also sweat glands, and hairs, which have sebaceous glands, and a smooth muscle called the arrector pili muscle, associated with them. Hairs are only found in thin skin, and not in the thick skin present on the fingertips, palms and soles of your feet. 

iii. Hypodermis:

This layer is underneath the dermis, and merges with it. It mainly contains adipose tissue and sweat glands. The adipose tissue has metabolic functions: it is responsible for production of vitamin D, and triglycerides.

What is Dermal Papillae


The photograph above  shows a section through thick skin. Thick skin like this is only found in areas where there is a lot of abrasion - such as palms, fingertips, and soles of your feet. Why do you think this is?
You should notice that the dermis extends up into the epidermis in structures called dermal papillae. These have two functions.
First, they help adhesion between the dermal and epidermal layers.
Second, in areas of thick skin like this, they provide a large surface area, to nourish the epidermal layer.
Don't forget the epidermis is a stratified squamous epithelium (or in simpler words, 'dead skin cells that has been squashed together over time), so it does not have its own blood supply. It relies solely on the blood supply from the dermis.

show labels

This is an H&E section of thick skin. The outer layers of skin are towards the top. See if you can identify the epidermis, dermis, dermal papillae and sweat glands. Notice that there are no hairs in this region.

The Dermis and Hypodermis
The dermis is a connective tissue layer, that contains collagen and elastin fibres, and fibroblasts, macrophages and adipocytes, as well as nerves, glands and hair follicles. The dermis is tough, and i the layer used to make leather.

s

It can be divided into two regions:
superficial region - (papillary dermis) the region around the dermal papillae, which makes up around 20% of the dermis. This layer contains loose connective tissue, and it has many capillaries. It extends up into the epidermis in small projections called dermal papillae. This region also contains Meissners corpuscles, which are touch receptors, as well as free nerve endings (non- myelinated) that are sensitive to temperature.
deeper region - (reticular dermis) this is a layer of dense irregular connective tissue, which contains collagen and elastin, which give skin its strength and extensibility. The collagen bundles are woven into a coarse network. This layer contains fibroblasts, macrophages and fat cells.
The sweat glands are found deep in this region and in the hypodermis. Can you see the two regions of the dermis in the picture above?
The hypodermis lies under the dermis, and mainly contains adipose tissue.

The circulation of skin
The arteries supplying the skin are deep in the hypdermis. Branches from the arteries pass upwards to form a deep and a superficial plexus.
The deep cutaneous plexus is at the dermal/hypodermal junction. It supplies the fatty tissue of the hypodermis, and the deeper parts of the dermis, including the capillaries for hair follicles, deep sebaceous glands and sweat glands.
The superficial subpapillary plexus lies just beneath
the dermal papillae, and supplies the capillaries in the dermal papillae. The pink colour of skin is mainly due to the blood seen in venules of this plexus.
There are many arteriovenous anastomoses in the dermis, which can prevent blood from entering the superficial cutaneous plexus. This strategy is used as a response to cold as a way of conserving heat. The danger is that if the epidermis loses its blood supply for too long, it will die (frostbite!).
Alternatively, when it is hot, more blood is allowed into the superficial plexus, and the skin flushes The blood in the superficial capillaries is cooled by the evaporation of sweat of the surface of skin. 

CREDITS: :: Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds  ::



https://downloads.khinsider.com/?u=1840643Video Games Music Score

In-vivo Stratum Corneum Barrier Function and Trans-Dermal Drug Delivery Study by Using AquaFlux and Capacitive Sensors (Part 1)

Perry Xiaoab, X OUa, H Singha, LI Ciorteab, EP Bergb and RE Imhofb

a Faculty of ESBE, London South Bank University, 103 Borough Road, London SE1 0AA, UK

b Biox Systems Ltd, 103 Borough Road, London SE1 0AA, UK

1.0 Opto-Thermal Transient Emission Radiometry (OTTER)

1.1 Opto-Thermal Skin Measurements

1.2 Opto-Thermal Skin Measurements

1.3 Opto-Thermal Skin Measurements

1.4 Opto-Thermal Skin Measurements

1.5 Opto-Thermal Skin Measurements

1.6 Opto-Thermal Skin Measurements

1.7 Opto-Thermal Skin Measurements

2.0 Condenser TEWL Method - AquaFlux

2.1 Condenser based, Closed-Chamber TEWL Measurements Technology

2.2 Condenser based, Closed-Chamber TEWL Measurements

Technology

2.3 TEWL and TOWL Measurements

In-vivo Trans-Dermal Drug Delivery Study by Using Capacitance Sensors

P Xiao 1,2, H Singh 1, X Ou 1, A R Caparnagiu 3, LI Ciortea 2, EP Berg 2 and RE Imhof 1,2

1 Photophysics Research Centre, London South Bank University, London SE1 0AA, UK

2 Biox Systems Ltd, Technopark House, 90 London Road, London SE1 6LN, UK3

3 Kingston University, 53–57 High Street, Surrey KT1 1LQ, UK

Introduction

Capacitance based sensors, has shown potentials in skin hydration imaging, surface analysis, 3D surface profiles, and skin micro relief measurements[1-4]. Our latest studies showed that apart from water, capacitance sensors are also sensitive to many solvents, due to their high dielectric constants, which makes it very useful for in-vivo trans-dermal drug delivery studies. In this paper, we present our latest in-vivo trans-dermal drug delivery study by using capacitance sensors, AquaFlux and OTTER. The results shows that capacitance sensors can be a useful tool for studying in-vivo solvent penetration through skin, as it gives an dynamic 2D images of solvent penetrating through skin, and combining with tape stripping, it is also possible to get solvent depth profiles within skin.

Apparatus

Figure 1 shows the photos and schematic diagrams of opto-thermal transient emission radiometry (OTTER), capacitance sensor (Fujitsu), and AquaFlux (Biox Systems Ltd). OTTER is an infrared remote sensing technology which uses a pulse laser as heat source and fast infrared detector to detect the consequent black-body radiation increase, the shape of the signal depends on the optical properties, thermal properties and layered structure of the skin sample. capacitance sensor used has 256x300 pixels with 50mm spatial resolution and 8-bit gray-scale value resolution per pixel. AquaFlux is novel close-chamber TEWL method, the cylindrical measurement chamber is open at one end which is in contact of skin surface, and it closed at another end with a cold plate - condenser. The closed chamber with a condenser helps to stabilize the measurement environment and therefore enhance repeatability and accuracy of the measurement results.

Results and Discussions
In this study, three solvents are chosen for study, DMSO, Glycerol, and Ethylene Glycol, due to their high dielectric constants, see Table 1. In each measurement, a small amount of solvent is applied to the volar forearm for a few minutes. After the skin surface is wiped dry, tape stripping is performed. capacitance sensor measurements are performed both before and after the solvent applications, and after each strip.


Table 1 Dielectric Constants of the solvents and skin

Figure 2 and 3 are the results for DMSO, Glycerol and Ethylene Glycol. The capacitance skin images can clearly discriminate between the solvents and normal skin due to dielectric constant differences. The results show that DMSO penetrates more and deeper than Glycerol, as DMSO residue is still visible after 10 strips, whilst Glycerol residue disappears after 5 strips.

By measuring the grayscale values of pure solvents, pure skin itself, we can work out the solvent absolute concentration [%,volume in volume] using following equation.

Where Gmix is the grayscale value of skin after solvent application, Gskin is the grayscale value of skin itself, and Gsolvent is the grayscale value of pure solvent. C is the solvent absolute concentration in skin in volume percentage. Figure 4 shows the absolute concentration [%, vol/vol] of the DMSO, Glycerol, and Ethylene Glycol on skin before application, after, and subsequently during tape stripping. The results show that DMSO can penetrate most into skin, and still present after 10 tape stripping, whilst Glycerol and Ethylene Glycol are disappeared after about 5 or 6 tape stripping.

OTTER is an infrared remote sensing technology that has been used for trans-dermal drug delivery studies [5]. Figure 5 shows the comparison of the capacitance sensor skin image grayscale values and OTTER data for Glycerol aplication. The results show a good correlation between capacitance sensor data and OTTER data. The TEWL results measured by AquaFlux [6] also increased as tape stripping number increased, work is in progress to correlation the capacitance sensor grayscale results with TEWL results.

By using the thickness information of each tape strip, we can also re-construct the Fig 2 and 3 images into 3D solvent depth profiles, see Fig 6.

Conclusions
The study shows that capacitance sensor imaging is a powerful tool for solvent penetration through stratum corneum. The
capacitance sensors are not only sensitive to water, but also sensitive to solvents with relative large dielectric constants. The capacitance sensor results correlates well with well established OTTER technology results. Combining with tape stripping, we can also re-construct the 3D solvent depth profiles within stratum corneum. The next step is to perform additional correlation tests between the capacitance sensor grayscale results with AquaFlux TEWL results.

Acknowledgement
We thank EPSRC and London South Bank University for the financial support.

References
1. Leveque, J.L. and Querleux, B. SkinChip, a new tool for investigating the skin surface in vivo. Skin Research and Technology 9, 343-347, (2003).
2. Batisse, D., Giron F. and Leveque J.L. Capacitance imaging of the skin surface. Skin Research and Technology 12, pp99-104, (2006).
3. P Xiao, H Singh, X Zheng, E P Berg and R E Imhof, In-vivo Skin Imaging For Hydration and Micro Relief Measurements,
Stratum Corneum V conference, July 11-13, 2007, Cardiff, UK.
4. H Singh, P Xiao, EP Berg and RE Imhof, Skin Capacitance Imaging for Surface Profiles and Dynamic Water Concentration Measurements, ISBS Conference, Seoul, Korea, May 7-10, 2008.
5. P Xiao JA Cowen and R E Imhof, “In-Vivo Transdermal Drug Diffusion Depth Profiling - A New Approach to Opto-Thermal Signal Analysis”, Analytical Sciences, Vol 17 Special Issue, pp s349-s352, 2001.
6. R E Imhof, M E P De Jesus, P Xiao, L I Ciortea and E P Berg, Closed-chamber TEWL measurement:- microclimate,
calibration and performance, Int J Cosmet Sci, Vol 31, Issue 2, 97-118, 2009.

Skin Occlusions Measurements Using Condenser TEWL Methods and Capacitance Sensors

H Singh - Faculty of ESBE, London South Bank University, 103 Borough Road, London SE1 0AA, UK
AR Caparnagiu - Kingston University, 53–57 High Street, Surrey KT1 1LQ, UK
P Xiao - Faculty of ESBE, London South Bank University, 103 Borough Road, London SE1 0AA, UK
LI Ciortea - Biox Systems Ltd, 103 Borough Road, London SE1 0AA, UK
EP Berg - Biox Systems Ltd, 103 Borough Road, London SE1 0AA, UK
RE Imhof - Faculty of ESBE, London South Bank University, 103 Borough Road, London SE1 0AA, UK

Introduction
Stratum Corneum (SC) is the outmost skin layer that plays a key role in skin cosmetic properties as well as its barrier functions. Water content and TEWL (trans-epidermal water loss) measurements are two key measurements for the SC characterisation. In this paper, we studied how the SC property varies from skin site to skin site and from person to person, through occlusion measurements by using condenser-chamber TEWL method – AquaFlux [1] and Capacitance sensors [2] and camera photo imaging. Different skin sites are occluded for a fix length of time by using a photo camera lamp glass surface. Fingerprint array sensor, which records the skin hydration images continuously through out the occlusion, and TEWL measurements are performed both before the occlusions and after the occlusions. The results show that different skin sites reacts differently during the occlusions which reflects the different water holding properties and different barrier functions of different skin sites. We have additionally used a photo imaging technique to record the skin images that are being occluded with the camera lamp.


Apparatus
Three skin measurement techniques are used – AquaFlux AF200, Capacitance sensors (MBF200, Fujitsu) and Camera Imaging (SONY DSC-W55 camera with Dermlite II Epiluminescencemicroscopy light lamp) are used to measure in-vivo skin occlusion of different skin sites.

Results and Discussions

All the measurements are performed under normal ambient laboratory conditions, i.e. 20~21°C, and 40~50% relative humidity (RH), volunteers are acclimatised in the laboratory for 20 minutes prior to the measurements. The skin sites used for the measurements are untreated. 

The occlusion measurements is done by first measuring the selected skin site with the AquaFlux, then same skin site is measured using the capacitance sensor. The skin site is then imaged using the photo imaging digital camera. The light lamp of the camera has a glass surface and is in contact with selected skin site. Since the glass surface of the light lamp is in contact with the skin, it is used to occlude the skin and an image is taken every minute for 5 minutes. After 5 minutes of occlusion, the capacitance sensor is used to measure the site and finally the Aquaflux measurement is taken. In total three different skin sites were studied. 

The images from the photo camera are then processed using a dedicated program written in Matlab. The images are separated into their three original colour filters of Red, Green and Blue, then each colours gray-scale values are generated and the average value for all the pixels within an image are calculated. Table 1 shows these occlusion tests result from the photo imaging.

Female Caucasian, 20-30 years								Male Asian, 30-40 years
Volar Forearm								Volar Forearm
	0 min	1 min	2 min	3 min	4 min	5 min			0 min	1 min	2 min	3 min	4 min	5 min
Red	131.423	129.567	130.1743	130.0011	129.2898	129.8782		Red	141.1935	135.937	134.0693	133.094	134.9889	134.99
Green	130.3913	124.7491	125.3285	124.3349	124.4695	123.9983		Green	121.5389	124.2652	124.8552	125.2439	123.8581	123.8552
Blue	131.4757	123.6397	124.7576	124.54	123.9352	124.5205		Blue	109.3358	135.937	114.1685	114.4288	116.16	116.1599
Upper Arm								Upper Arm
	0 min	1 min	2 min	3 min	4 min	5 min			0 min	1 min	2 min	3 min	4 min	5 min
Red	130.2059	127.2306	127.5777	126.1287	125.5655	125.6826		Red	138.2611	135.2307	133.8287	133.5506	133.1282	134.2871
Green	122.2571	123.5045	123.5676	123.5767	124.2271	124.0916		Green	120.3928	122.2922	122.6455	123.2906	122.5278	121.5677
Blue	121.7324	122.6311	122.6886	122.5071	123.1903	123.0019		Blue	101.8515	102.6041	133.8287	101.5861	102.3726	104.4075
Lower Leg								Lower Leg
	0 min	1 min	2 min	3 min	4 min	5 min			0 min	1 min	2 min	3 min	4 min	5 min
Red	128.4427	124.0147	125.2846	125.5396	125.7988	127.2812		Red	143.5055	137.9213	138.9231	140.7148	140.2664	139.5455
Green	122.9635	123.8155	124.0308	123.5781	123.767	125.5539		Green	120.2386	116.6196	117.5008	117.6688	117.4422	117.3345
Blue	122.4448	122.8413	123.083	122.5198	123.2714	125.0113		Blue	99.89186	96.74854	97.58737	98.86824	99.38752	98.99079

Table 1 The average, of different skin sites using  camera measurements.

In general, there is a trend in the photo imaging whereby as the skin is occluded, the  red, green and blue colour gray-scale drops. It is also seen  that  red has the highest gray-scale followed by green and finally blue has the lowest gray-scale. There are some inconsistent reading  that might have been caused by movement of the camera.




Figure 2 shows Table 1’s average values of the three different skin sites of two volunteers. In general all the images have red as the highest values, while green is the second most prominent and blue is at the lowest range. Also it is noted that all skin sites shows a drop in values immediately after the first minute of occlusion.  There are variability of each of the skin sites and especially between the two volunteers.

Shown below are one set of example photos of the Volar Forearm of the female volunteer.  As there is a very subtle change in the luminosity overall image, it’s is more useful to measure the RGB colours for the individual changes.

Using the Aquaflux, a measurement was taken at 0 minutes and at 5 minutes. The table below shows Trans-epidermal Water Loss measurement before and after occlusion of the three  different location of skin.

	Volar Forearm		Upper Arm		Lower Leg
	before	after	before	after	before	after
Female	10.15306	11.1047	11.2664	12.3969	9.17892	11.3531
Male	14.46935	16.7147	12.0438	15.0522	14.9099	20.4585

TEWL measurement shows a consistent increase before and after occlusion and is variable based on the skin site. Similarly the  capacitance sensor shows consistent increase in the gray-scale  after occlusion of the skin site.

The TEWL shows an increase in both volunteers as seen in Figure 4. The reading for the Volar forearm  of both the volunteers increases after occlusion and the male Asian subject has a higher TEWL and higher increase than the female Caucasian subject. This can be seen in all three  skin location of  both the volunteers. The female Caucasian  volunteer  has lower TEWL reading than the male .

Capacitance sensor measurement was taken at  0 minute and 5 minutes  and the results is shown in Table 3 above. In the images, each pixel is represented by an 8 bit grayscale value, 0~255, with 0 represent white (low capacitance) and 255 represent black (high capacitance) [3]. The gray-scale average shown are generally consistent with the TEWL measurement from Figure 4 above. The gray-scale values of the three skin locations drops  after occlusion  as the skin image  has became darker as shown in Figure 5.

	Volar Forearm		Upper Arm		Lower Leg
	before	after	before	after	before	after
Female	140.42	50.16	118.21	33.47	129.39	62.01
Male	156.67	54.68	131.5	65.5	161.98	125.15

Conclusions
The study shows that occlusion measurement of different skin site using the Condenser Chamber Method and the capacitance sensor are producing consistent results. The Aquaflux TEWL measurement are highly sensitive and measuring occlusion of different skin sites using different measurement instruments, we can study the skin site variability and the instrument variability.

The capacitance sensor produces visual images that allows for first hand analysis  We introduced the use of photo imaging in these experiments.The initial study of photo imaging  shows that separation of colour to R,G and B filters suggest that colour red has the highest  concentration in skin images followed by green and blue. Occluding and measuring different skin sites, shows promising results in using capacitance sensor  as an occlusion measurement instrument.

Acknowledgement 
We thank EPSRC and London South Bank University for the financial support.

References
[1] J Fluhr, P Elsner, E Berardesca, H I Maibach, Bioengineering of the Skin-Water and the Stratum Corneum, 2nd Edition, CRC Press, ISBN: 0849314437, (2005).
[2] J Serup, G B. E. Jemec, G L. Grove, Handbook of Non-Invasive Methods and the Skin, Second Edition, ISBN: 0849314372, Informa HealthCare, (2006).
[3]    H Singh, P Xiao, E P Berg and R E Imhof, Skin Capacitance Imaging for Surface Profiles and Dynamic Water Concentration Measurements, ISBS2008.